Preparing the beds for the winter time

School garden beds after being prepared

When the winter is coming we have to prepare the beds that we will be using in spring. The steps:

1. Clear the bed
2. Take away ant put into the compost all the dead plants and weeds
3. Modify the pH with lime if the bed is too acid with sulfur or wood chips if it is too alkaline
4. Cover with a net or plastic
5. Hold the cover so it doesn't blow with the wind

Taxus baccata - Yew tree

Latin plant name Taxus baccata Common plant name Yew tree Plant type Conifer tree  Size (meters) 10 - 20 m Distinguishing features The trunk can be up to 2 metres (exceptionally 4 m) diameter. The bark is thin, scaly brown, coming off in small flakes aligned with the stem. The leaves are lanceolate, flat, dark green, 1–4 centimetres long and 2–3 millimetres broad, arranged spirally on the stem, but with the leaf bases twisted to align the leaves in two flat rows either side of the stem, It is relatively slow growing, and can be very long-lived, with the maximum recorded trunk diameter of 4 metres probably only being reached in about 2,000 years. It is considered by several authors that the oldest yew tree in Spain is located in Bermiego,Asturias. It is known as 'Teixu l'Iglesia' in the Asturian language. It is 15 metres tall with a trunk perimeter of 6 metres and a crown diameter of 10 metres. It was planted around 1160. It was declared Natural Monument on April 27, 1995 by the Asturian Government and is protected by the Plan of Natural Resources. Most parts of the tree are toxic, except the bright red aril surrounding the seed, enabling ingestion and dispersal by birds. The major toxin is the alkaloid taxane. The foliage remains toxic even when wilted or dried. Horses have the lowest tolerance, with a lethal dose of 200–400 mg/kg body weight, but cattle, pigs, and other livestock are only slightly less vulnerable. Symptoms include staggering gait, muscle tremors, convulsions, collapse, difficulty breathing, coldness and eventually heart failure. However, death occurs so rapidly that many times the symptoms are missed. Fatal poisoning in humans is very rare, only occurring after eating a lot of yew foliage. The lethal dose is reported to be between 50 and 100 grams.The wood is also poisonous. There aren't weeds beneath the yew trees because the roots are also poisonous. In the ancient Celtic world, the yew tree (*eburos) had extraordinary importance; a passage by Caesar narrates that Catuvolcus, chief of the Eburones poisoned himself with yew rather than submit to Rome (Gallic Wars 6: 31).  The yew is often found in churchyards in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland and France. In Ireland it is called the death tree. Yew is the wood of choice for longbow making; the bows are constructed so that the heartwood of yew is on the inside of the bow while the sapwood is on the outside. This takes advantage of the natural properties of yew wood since the heartwood resists compression while the sapwood resists stretching. In latin the termination 'xus' gives the indication of its use in medicine. Taxol is a medicine use to treat cancer and it is extracter from the yew tree.

Preventing late frost

Late frost can cause a lot of damage in our crop and to our plants.

If we have trees that have blossomed and we expect to get late frost we have to protect them from it, otherwise the flowers will get frozen and we will not get any fruits.

To protect a blossomed tree from the late frost we can used different techniques:

1. Cover the tree with a fleece. We will use this for temperatures between +2º and - 5ºC
2. Place a bucket full of water on the bottom of the tree. The water will take most of the frost from the tree.
3. Sprinkle the tree with running water. It has to be running water to avoid the sprinkled water to get frozen as that will do even more damage than the frost.
4. Place a tar barrel close to the tree. The tar will give some heat to the tree.

Christmas wreaths

If we want to set up a business to make and sell christmas wreaths the plants we will need to have are:

1. Holly tree
2. Ivy
3. Pine tree
4. Gorse / Furze
5. Acuba japonica
6. Blackberries

Polytunnel

A polytunnel is a tunnel made of polyethylene, usually semi-circular, square or elongated in shape. The interior heats up because incoming solar radiation from the sun warms plants, soil, and other things inside the building faster than heat can escape the structure. Air warmed by the heat from hot interior surfaces is retained in the building by the roof and wall. Temperature, humidity and ventilation can be controlled by equipment fixed in the polytunnel.

The idea temperature in the polytunnel is between 23º and 25º. At higher temperatures the fungus will grow and attack the plants.

Apart from special equipment we can modify the temperature and the humidity inside the polytunnel using very simple techniques.

To lower the temperature we can:

- Paint the glasses in white to

- Open the doors

To raise the temperature we can:

- Put the blinds in the evening

- Place a reflecting blanket

- Use a propane burner

- Place hot-water pipes

- Place red lamps

If we are building a green house we can build the south face with brick as it will retain the heat inside them and the north side with stone to avoid loosing the temperature on that side.

If we need to lower the humidity inside the polytunnel we will open both ends of the tunnel to circulate the air.

Malus domestica - Apple tree

Latin plant name Malus domestica Common plant name Apple tree Plant type Deciduous fruit tree  Size (meters) <3-12 m Distinguishing -features The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals, petiole with an acute tip, serrated margin and a slightly downy underside. Blossoms are produced in spring simultaneously with the budding of the leaves. The flowers are white with a pink tinge that gradually fades, five petaled. The fruit matures in autumn. The center of the fruit contains five carpels arranged in a five-point star, each carpel containing one to three seeds, called pips.

Euphorbia pulcherrima - Poinsettia

Latin plant name Euphorbia pulcherrima Common plant name Poinsettia Plant type Shrub flowering plant Size (meters) < 4 m Distinguishing features The poinsettia is a culturally and commercially important plant species of the diverse spurge family that is indigenous to Mexico and Central America. It is particularly well known for its red and green foliage and is widely used in Christmas floral displays. In areas outside its natural environment, it is commonly grown as an indoor plant where it prefers good morning sun, then shade in the hotter part of the day. However, it is widely grown and very popular in subtropical climates such as Australia.

Courgettes

Courgettes are also called zucchini. 

In a culinary context, the courgette is treated as a vegetable, which means it is usually cooked and presented as a savory dish or accompaniment. Botanically, however, the zucchini is an immature fruit, being the swollen ovary of the zucchini flower.

Courgette is one of the easiest fruits to cultivate in temperate climates. As such, it has a reputation among home gardeners for overwhelming production. One good way to control over-abundance is to harvest the flowers, which are an expensive delicacy in markets because of the difficulty in storing and transporting them. The male flower is borne on the end of a stalk and is longer lived.

While easy to grow, courgettes, like all squash, requires plentiful bees for pollination. In areas of pollinator decline or high pesticide use, such as mosquito-spray districts, gardeners often experience fruit abortion, where the fruit begins to grow, then dries or rots. This is due to an insufficient number of pollen grains delivered to the female flower. It can be corrected by hand pollination or by increasing the bee population.

The courgettes need a neutral high rich organic soil. They need warmth and shelter so in Ireland it is a good option to plant them inside the polytunnel.

Three sisters planting

The Three Sisters Garden is a wonderful example of relationships in the garden. From a scientific, agricultural perspective these relationships are between particular families of plants, legume family (beans, peas), the grass family (corn) and the gourd or curcubit family (squash, pumpkins and melons).

The "three sisters" are maize/corn (Zea mays), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and squash (Cucurbita spp.). According to historical records, the farmer dug a hole in the ground and placed one seed of each species into the hole. The maize grows first, providing a stalk for the beans, which reach upward for access to the sun. The squash plant grows low to the ground, shaded by the beans and corn, and keeping the weeds from affecting the other two plants.

Today, intercropping in general is recommended as an alternative system for small-scale farmers to improve their yield, and thus food production and income in limited spaces. Inter-cropping is also insurance: if one of the crops fail, the others might not, and the farmer is more likely to get at least one of the crops to produce in a given year, no matter how extreme the weather circumstances.

The microclimate produced by the three sisters combination favors the survival of the plants. Maize is notorious for sucking the nitrogen out of the soil; beans, on the other hand, supply replacement mineral nitrogen back into the soil: essentially, these are the effects of crop rotation without actually having to rotate crops. Overall, say crop scientists, more protein and energy are produced by intercropping three crops in the same space than that achieved by modern monocultural agriculture.

Maize maximizes photosynthesis, and grows straight and tall. Beans use the stalks for structural support and to gain greater access to sunlight; at the same time they bring atmospheric nitrogen into the system, making the nitrogen available to maize. Squash performs best in shady, humid places, and that is the type of microclimate provided by the corn and beans together. Further, squash decreases the amount of erosion that plagues monocultural cropping of corn.

Corylus avellana - Hazel tree

Latin plant name Corylus avellana Common plant name Hazel tree Plant type Deciduous tree Size (meters) < 4m Distinguishing features They have simple, rounded leaves with double-serrate margins. The flowers are produced very early in spring before the leaves, and are monoecious, with single-sex catkins. The nuts of all hazels are edible. The Celts believed hazelnuts gave one wisdom and inspiration. There are numerous variations on an ancient tale that nine hazel trees grew around a sacred pool, dropping into the water nuts that were eaten by salmon (a fish sacred to Druids) which absorbed the wisdom. The number of spots on the salmon were said to indicate how many nuts they had eaten. A Druid teacher, in his bid to become omniscient, caught one of these special salmon and asked a student to cook the fish, but not to eat it. While he was cooking it, hot liquid from the cooking fish splashed onto the pupil's thumb, which he naturally sucked to cool, thereby absorbing the fish's wisdom. This boy was called Fionn Mac Cumhail (Fin McCool) and went on to become one of the most heroic leaders in Gaelic mythology. Hazel wood was used by the dowsers to identify sources of fresh water underground.

Soil pH

Different types of plants require varying degrees of soil acidity. In fact, some plants are very sensitive to soil pH.

Rhododendrons and heathers will not tolerate lime in the soil. On the other hand Clematis prefers an alkaline soil.

What does soil pH mean?

The acidity or alkalinity of the soil is measured by pH (potential Hydrogen ions).

Basically it is a measure of the amount of lime (calcium) contained in your soil, and the type of soil that you have. Generally, soils in moist climates tend to be acid and those in dry climates are alkaline. A soil with a pH lower than 7.0 is an acid soil and one with a pH higher than 7.0 is alkaline.

The soil must be adjusted to suit the plant which will occupy that area if it is not already within that plants requirement range.

Testing your soil pH

Most good garden centers will even gladly pH test a soil sample for you, or you can buy an inexpensive pH test kit at most nurseries, or hardware stores.

These test kits generally consist of a test tube, some testing solution and a color chart. You put a sample of your soil in the tube, add a few drops of test solution, shake it up and leave it for an hour or so to settle.

The solution in the tube changes color according to the pH of your soil. Compare the color of the sample with the color chart that came with the kit. Matching colors will tell you the pH of your sample. The better kits will also advisory booklets about how to interpret your result.

Adjusting your soil pH

Once you have determined the pH you can amend the soil, if needed to accommodate the plants in your garden using materials commonly available at your local garden center.

Raising the soil pH to make it more alkaline

Generally speaking, it is easier to make soils more alkaline than it is to make them more acid. Because different soil types react in different ways to the application of lime you will have to add more lime to clay soils and peaty soils than you will in sandy soils to achieve the same result.

To increase your pH by 1.0 point and make your soil more alkaline:

Add 4 ounces of hydrated lime per square yard in sandy soils

Add 8 ounces of hydrated lime per square yard in loamy soils

Add 12 ounces of hydrated lime per square yard in clay soils

Add 25 ounces of hydrated lime per square yard in peaty soils 

Correction of an overly acid soil should be considered a long term project, rather than trying to accomplish it in one year. It is better to test your soil each year and make your adjustments gradually. The addition of hardwood ash, bone meal, crushed marble, or crushed oyster shells will also help to raise the soil pH.

Lowering the soil pH to make it more acidic

If your soil needs to be more acidic, sulfur may be used to lower the pH if it is available. To reduce the soil pH by 1.0 point, mix in 1.2 oz of ground rock sulfur per square yard if the soil is sandy, or 3.6 oz per square yard for all other soils. The sulfur should be thoroughly mixed into the soil before planting. Sawdust, composted leaves, wood chips, cottonseed meal, leaf mold and especially peat moss, will lower the soil pH.

Popular - Cottonwood

Latin plant name Populus Common plant name Poplar or Cottonwood (chopo) Plant type Decidious tree Size (meters) < 15-50 m Distinguishing features The bark on young trees is smooth, white to greenish or dark grey, often with conspicuous lenticels; on old trees it remains smooth in some species, but becomes rough and deeply fissured in others. The flowers are mostly dioecious and appear in early spring before the leaves. They are borne in long, drooping, sessile or pedunculate catkins produced from buds formed in the axils of the leaves of the previous year. Cottonwood are ofter in wetlands. They have the advantage of growing very big, very fast. Almost all poplars take root readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on the ground. Trees with fastigiate (erect, columnar) branching are particularly popular, and are widely grown across Europe and southwest Asia. However, like willows, poplars have very vigorous and invasive root systems stretching up to 40 m from the trees; planting close to houses or ceramic water pipes may result in damaged foundations and cracked walls and pipes due to their search for moisture.

Betula - Birch

Latin plant name Betula Common plant name Birch (abedul) Plant type Decidious tree Size (meters) <10m Distinguishing features They are typically rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere particularly in northern temperate and boreal climates. Birch species are generally small to medium-sized trees or shrubs, mostly of temperate climates. The simple leaves are alternate, singly or doubly serrate, feather-veined, petiolate and stipulate. They often appear in pairs, but these pairs are really borne on spur-like, two-leaved, lateral branchlets. The fruit is a small samara, although the wings may be obscure in some species. They differ from the alders in that the female catkins are not woody and disintegrate at maturity, falling apart to release the seeds, unlike the woody, cone-like female alder catkins. Birches often form even-aged stands on light, well-drained, particularly acidic soils. They are regarded as pioneer species, rapidly colonising open ground.

Comfrey

Comfrey (also comphrey) is an important herb in organic gardening. It is used as a fertilizer and as an herbal medicine. 

Comfrey is a particularly valuable source of fertility to the organic gardener. It is very deep rooted and acts as a dynamic accumulator, mining a host of nutrients from the soil. These are then made available through its fast-growing leaves (up to 4-5 pounds per plant per cut) which, lacking fibre, quickly break down to a thick black liquid. There is also no risk of nitrogen robbery when comfrey is dug into the soil as the C:N ratio of the leaves is lower than that of well-rotted compost. Comfrey is an excellent source of potassium, an essential plant nutrient needed for flower, seed and fruit production. Its leaves contain 2-3 times more potassium than farmyard manure, mined from deep in the subsoil, tapping into reserves that would not normally be available to plants.

There are various ways in which comfrey can be used as a fertilier. These include:

• Comfrey as a compost activator - include comfrey in the compost heap to add nitrogen and help to heat the heap. Comfrey should not be added in quantity as it will quickly break down into a dark sludgy liquid that needs to be balanced with more fibrous, carbon-rich material.
• Comfrey liquid fertilizer - can be produced by either rotting leaves down in rainwater for 4–5 weeks to produce a ready-to-use 'comfrey tea', or by stacking dry leaves under a weight in a container with a hole in the base. When the leaves decompose a thick black comfrey concentrate is collected. This must be diluted at 15:1 before use.
• Comfrey as a mulch or side dressing - a two-inch layer of comfrey leaves placed around a crop will slowly break down and release plant nutrients; it is especially useful for crops that need extra potassium, such as fruit bearers but also reported to do well for potatoes. Comfrey can be slightly wilted before application optionally but either way, avoid using flowering stems as these can root.
• Comfrey potting mixture - originally devised to utilize peat, now environmental awareness has led to a leaf mold-based alternative being adopted instead; two year old, well decayed leaf mold should be used, this will absorb the nutrient-rich liquid released by the decaying comfrey. In a black plastic sack alternate 3-4 inch layers of leaf mold and chopped comfrey leaves. Add a littledolomitic limestone to slightly raise pH. Leave for between 2–5 months depending on the season, checking that it does not dry out or become too wet. The mixture is ready when the comfrey leaves have rotted and are no longer visible. Use as a general potting compost, although it is too strong for seedlings.

In the school garden we prepared liquid comfrey fertilizer. We cut the leaves of the comfrey and stuffed them into a 'tea bag' that we left inside a container for two weeks. After those two weeks we took our the 'tea bag' and let the comfrey liquid in the container for future use.